Chesapeake Bay Climate Impacts Summary and Outlook

Mid-Atlantic Regional Climate Impacts Summary and Outlook: Fall 2022

Highlights

  • Most of the region experienced temperatures that were within two degrees of normal for the fall season, which is similar to what has been observed for the past five seasons. However, more of the region experienced temperatures that were 1–2 degrees below normal than since the start of the MARISA climate summary series in 2018.
  • The majority of the region saw near-normal precipitation this season, experiencing between 125 and 75 percent of their normal fall precipitation amounts.
  • The first week of November was unusually warm. On November 7, Lynchburg, Virginia recorded its warmest November day on record with a high of 84 degrees Fahrenheit.
  • The Mid-Atlantic region is projected to experience a similar number of consecutive dry days in the future under a lower emissions scenario and only small increases in the number of consecutive dry days in the high emissions scenario.

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Figure 1. Mid-Atlantic Region

A map of the Mid-Atlantic regional highlighting the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

Map showing the Mid-Atlantic region shaded in blue.

This summary focuses on fall weather and climate events in the Chesapeake Bay watershed and provides highlights from the greater Mid-Atlantic region. The fall season is defined as the months of September, October, and November. The MARISA region covers Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and Pennsylvania and the portions of New York and West Virginia that fall within the boundaries of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, as shown in Figure 1 above. We refer to this region as the Mid-Atlantic region in the rest of the climate summary.

Part 1: Significant Weather Events and Impacts

Severe Weather

From September 4-6, heavy rain fell across portions of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, with the greatest totals ranging from three to six inches.1 Binghamton, New York reported 2.53 inches of rain on September 5, making it the site’s eighth wettest September day since records began in 1951.2 Washington County, Maryland experienced localized flash flooding that closed roads and led to several water rescues.3

On September 19 an Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale 1 tornado with winds of up to 90 mph snapped and uprooted trees in Steuben County, New York. This was the county’s first tornado since 2013.4

Tropical Storms

From September 30 through October 4, the remnants of Hurricane Ian crossed Virginia, merged with a coastal low, and stalled off the Mid-Atlantic coast.5 The storm brought multiple days of below-normal temperatures, rain, gusty winds, and elevated water levels to the southeastern portions of watershed in particular.6 Total rainfall from the storm ranged from 1 to 5 inches, with locally higher amounts, which eased much of the drought and dryness that the region had been experiencing.7,8 Coastal areas experienced peak wind gusts ranging from 50 to 70 mph, with some higher gusts measured offshore.9 The strong winds contributed to minor to moderate coastal flooding, with locally major flooding in Jamestown and Virginia Beach, Virginia; however few impacts were reported.10,11

Post Tropical Cyclone Nicole moved through the watershed from November 11-12. The storm dropped up to 3 inches of rain in the region, alleviating moderate drought in central Virginia and abnormal dryness in central New York, Pennsylvania, and much of Maryland.12,13 The storm also spawned two EF-0 tornadoes in Virginia, one in King and Queen County and one in Dinwiddie County.14 The tornadoes were on the ground for over two miles and uprooted trees, snapped branches, and damaged outbuildings.15

Figure 2. Coastal Flooding from Hurricane Ian's Remnants in Lynnhaven, Virginia, on October 3, 2022

Coastal flooding on October 3, 2022 in Lynnhaven, Virginia. Photo by NWS Wakefield, Virginia

SOURCE: NWS Wakefield, Virginia

Drought

The U.S. Drought Monitor released on September 8 showed pockets of drought in central Pennsylvania and on the Delmarva Peninsula and areas of moderate drought spread throughout the watershed.16 Dry conditions in Pennsylvania over the summer and early September caused the swimming area at Beltzville State Park to close early for the season, higher costs of some crops, and water restrictions for several communities.17,18,19 For most of September, Virginia and Maryland were generally drier than normal, which allowed drought and dryness to persist or expand in those states.20 Over the same period, northern Pennsylvania and New York were generally wetter than normal, which allowed drought to ease and dryness to contract in those portions of the watershed.21

In late September and early October, the remnants of Hurricane Ian brought rain to most of the watershed.22 This alleviated much of the drought and dryness in the region, with small areas of moderate drought and/or abnormal dryness only persisting in the Delmarva Peninsula and Virginia.23 The rest of October featured a limited number of storms, with many areas experiencing drier-than-normal conditions, with exceptions for areas in the southern portion of the watershed that received a soaking from the remnants of Ian.24 As a result, abnormal dryness was introduced or expanded in central New York, portions of central Pennsylvania, and the multiple parts of Virginia, with a small area of moderate drought developing in central Virginia.25

With little rainfall occurring during the first week of November, abnormal dryness expanded in central Pennsylvania, portions of Maryland, eastern West Virginia, and northern Virginia.26 Warm, dry, windy conditions fueled a few wildfires in Pennsylvania, with one in Centre County charring 800 acres.27 As mentioned above, soaking rain from the remnants of Hurricane Nicole alleviated moderate drought in central Virginia and abnormal dryness in central New York, Pennsylvania, and eastern West Virginia by mid-November.28 By late November, moderate drought remained only on the Delmarva Peninsula and abnormal dryness lingered in portions of Maryland and Virginia.29

Part 2: Seasonal Temperature and Precipitation

Temperature

Figure 3 shows the fall 2022 average temperature compared with the climate normal—i.e., the average seasonal temperature from 1991 to 2020.30 The figure shows that most areas experienced temperatures within two degrees of normal, but a few places in the northern portions of the watershed were more than 2 degrees above normal. The temperature departures over the last five seasons have typically fallen within 2 degrees of normal. This season more of the region experienced temperatures that were below normal than we've seen in any season since the climate summary series began in 2018.

Figure 3. September 1–November 30, 2022, Departure from Normal Temperature (degrees Fahrenheit)

September 1-November 30, 2022, Departure from Normal Temperature (degrees Fahrenheit)

SOURCE: Northeast Regional Climate Center, 2022 (https://www.nrcc.cornell.edu). Used with permission.

NOTE: Normal temperature is based on the fall season’s average temperature data from 1991–2020. Yellow, orange, and red indicate above-normal temperatures. Blue indicates below-normal temperatures. The boundaries of the Chesapeake Bay watershed are outlined in bold black. Average departure from normal temperature is based on a station’s normal temperature for fall compared with the same station’s fall 2022 average temperature. Station-level departures from normal are spatially interpolated across the region. Both are produced by the Northeast Regional Climate Center. These can be found at https://www.rcc-acis.org/docs_gridded.html.

As shown in Table 1, only one site in the Mid-Atlantic, Dulles Airport, Virginia, experienced average fall temperatures that ranked among its top 20 warmest on record.

Table 1. Fall Season (September–November) Temperature Rankings

Station Name Avg. Temp
(degrees F)		 Normal Temp
(degrees F)		Rank
(warmest)
Dulles Airport, VA 57.8 57.1 15

SOURCE: Northeast Regional Climate Center, 2022 (http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu). Used with permission.

Monthly Temperature Rankings

Dulles Airport, Viriginia, which experienced its 15th warmest September, was the only site in the Mid-Atlantic region to experience temperatures that ranked among the top 20 warmest or coolest Septembers on record.

No sites experienced temperatures that ranked in their top 20 warmest or coolest Octobers on record.

After a relatively normal start to the fall season, the first week of November was unusually warm across the region, ranking as the warmest November 1-7 period on record for multiple sites.31 From November 5-7, high temperatures in some areas ranged from 60 to 84 degrees F.32 Lynchburg, Virginia experienced its warmest November day on record with a high of 84 degrees F on November 7, while several other sites including Charlottesville, Dulles Airport, and Richmond, Virginia, and Baltimore and Salisbury, Maryland, had one of their eight warmest November days on record on either November 5 or 7.33,34

Low temperatures on November 5 and 6 were also exceptionally warm.35 On November 5, several sites including Scranton and Williamsport, Pennsylvania, Binghamton, New York, and Dulles Airport, Charlottesville, and Lynchburg, Virginia, recorded one of their 10 warmest low temperatures for November.36 The following day, on November 6, sites such as Binghamton, New York, Lynchburg and Charlottesville, Virginia, Martinsburg, West Virginia, and Harrisburg, Scranton, and Williamsport, Pennsylvania set or tied their records for warmest low temperature for November, with lows ranging from 63-67 degrees F.37,38 Meanwhile, sites such as Dulles Airport and Richmond Virginia, Baltimore, Maryland, and Washington, D.C. saw one of their 10 warmest low temperatures for November with lows ranging from 64-66 degrees F.39

A few sites saw a record number of days in November with a high temperature of at least 70 degrees F, including Dulles Airport, Virginia, with 10 days and Williamsport, Pennsylvania with six days.40

Table 2. Monthly Temperature Rankings

September Temperature Records (warmest)
Station Name Avg. Temp
(degrees F)		 Normal Temp
(degrees F)		 Rank
(warmest)
Dulles Airport, VA 69.4 68.6 15
October Temperature Rankings
Station Name Avg. Temp
(degrees F)		 Normal Temp
(degrees F)		 Rank
No sites experienced temperatures that ranked in their top 20 warmest or coolest Octobers on record
November Temperature Rankings (warmest)
Station Name Avg. Temp
(degrees F)		 Normal Temp
(degrees F)		 Rank
(warmest)
Charlottesville, VA 52.5 49.1 9
Dulles Airport, VA 49.1 46.0 9
Scranton, PA 45.7 42.7 10
Richmond, VA 53.1 49.6 11
Washington, D.C. 52.6 49.9 11
Lynchburg, VA 51.1 46.5 13
Binghamton, NY 41.1 37.9 14
Norfolk, VA 55.8 53.3 15
Harrisburg, PA 47.3 44.8 19
Salisbury, MD 51.3 48.2 19

Source: Northeast Regional Climate Center, 2022 (http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu). Used with permission.

Precipitation

Figure 4 shows how the total precipitation for September 1 through November 30, 2022 differed from normal, with normal being defined as the average fall precipitation from 1991–2020. Much of the region received 75–125 percent of normal precipitation, but portions of Virginia and south-central Pennsylvania, were drier than normal and only received 50–75 percent of normal precipitation. A few areas in south-western Virginia and northern Pennsylvania experienced wetter than normal conditions, up to 150–200 percent of normal.

Figure 4. September 1–November 1, 2022, Percentage of Normal Precipitation

A heat map showing departure from normal precipitation for the Mid-Atlantic region for October 1 – November 30, 2022. Source: Northeast Regional Climate Center, 2022

SOURCE: Northeast Regional Climate Center, 2022 (https://www.nrcc.cornell.edu). Used with permission.

NOTE: Normal seasonal precipitation is based on precipitation data from 1991–2020. Brown shades indicate below normal seasonal precipitation. Green shades indicate above normal seasonal precipitation. The boundaries of the Chesapeake Bay watershed are outlined in bold black. Average departures from normal precipitation are based on a station’s normal precipitation for fall compared with the same station’s fall 2022 average amount of precipitation. Station-level departures from normal are spatially interpolated across the region. Both are produced by the Northeast Regional Climate Center. These can be found at https://www.rcc-acis.org/docs_gridded.html.

As shown in Table 3, only one site in the Mid-Atlantic region, Binghamton, New York, saw fall precipitation amounts that ranked among its top 20 wettest on record. No other notable precipitation rankings were set for the fall season.

Table 3. Fall Season (September–November) Precipitation Rankings

Station Name Precipitation
(inches)		 Normal Precip
(inches)		 Rank
(wettest)
Binghamton, NY 13.42 10.88 10

SOURCE: Northeast Regional Climate Center, 2022 (http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu). Used with permission.

Monthly Precipitation Rankings

Few sites had precipitation amounts that ranked among their top 20 driest or wettest months on record. However Binghamton, New York, experienced its 5th wettest September on record, its 16th driest October on record, and its 16th wettest November on record. Additional rankings for other sites are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Monthly Precipitation Rankings

September Precipitation Rankings (driest)
Station Name Precipitation
(inches)		 Normal Precip
(inches)		 Rank
(driest)
No sites experienced precipitation that ranked among their top 20 driest months of September on record.
September Precipitation Rankings (wettest)
Station Name Precipitation
(inches)		 Normal Precip
(inches)		 Rank
(wettest)
Binghamton, NY 7.56 4.01 5
Scranton, PA 6.07 4.15 18
October Precipitation Rankings (driest)
Station Name Precipitation
(inches)		 Normal Precip
(inches)		 Rank
(driest)
Binghamton, NY 1.69 3.76 16
Dulles Airport, VA 2.24 3.65 20
October Precipitation Rankings (wettest)
Station Name Precipitation
(inches)		 Normal Precip
(inches)		 Rank
(wettest)
No sites experienced precipitation that ranked among their top 20 wettest Octobers on record
November Precipitation Rankings (driest)
Station Name Precipitation
(inches)		 Normal Precip
(inches)		 Rank
(driest)

No sites experienced precipitation that ranked among their top 20 driest Novembers on record.
November Precipitation Rankings (wettest)
Station Name Avg. Temp
(degrees F)		 Normal Temp
(degrees F)		 Rank
(wettest)
Binghamton, NY 4.17 3.11 16
Lynchburg, VA 4.73 3.39 20

Source: Northeast Regional Climate Center, 2022 (https://www.nrcc.cornell.edu). Used with permission.

Part 3: Winter 2022-2023 Outlook

Temperature and Precipitation

As of November 17, 2022 the NOAA Climate Prediction Center forecasts a 33-40-percent chance of above normal temperatures for the northern portions of the Mid-Atlantic region and a 40-50 percent change of above normal temperatures for the southern portions of the region for December, January and February 2022–2023.41 This indicates that the forecast is leaning towards having a warmer than normal winter season.42 The precipitation forecast shows an equal chance of wetter than, drier than, or near-normal conditions for much of Virginia and Maryland for the same period. Central Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and central New York have a 33–50 percent chance of a wetter than normal winter season.43

Drought Incidence

The U.S. Seasonal Drought Outlook identifies how drought might change across the United States and categorizes areas by whether drought could develop or become more or less intense. As of November 30, 2022 the Outlook indicates that drought removal is likely on the Delmarva Peninsula, but other than that there will be no change in drought conditions in the Mid-Atlantic region in the December, 2022 through February, 2023 winter season.44

Climate Circulation Patterns

NOAA's Climate Prediction Center, which monitors the likelihood of occurrence of El Niño and La Niña climate phenomena, has a La Niña advisory active as of December 8, 2022, that is likely to continue into the winter season but with a 71 percent chance of shifting to neutral conditions in February-April 2023.45 La Niña episodes have generally resulted in average to slightly above average temperatures and below normal precipitation and seasonal snowfall during December, January, and February in the Washington-Baltimore region.46

La Niña conditions are one of the factors taken into account in NOAA's long-term forecasts and seasonal outlooks such as the one included in this climate summary.47 However, other regional climate dynamics and natural climate variability also influence weather in the Mid-Atlantic. Additional information on La Niña is available from the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory.

Part 4: Longest Annual Stretch of Dry Days

While the focus of water management in the Mid-Atlantic is often on extreme high precipitation, drought can and does occur. In the late 1990s, for example, drought across the region led to major crop losses and declarations of emergency for 11 localities in Virginia. States also imposed restrictions on water users as water supplies lowered.48 Other past droughts in the region, such as in 2002, have also produced losses in crop production, and some have co-occurred with heat waves, resulting in impacts to human health and fatalities.

As of December 1, parts of central Virginia are designated as abnormally dry. In fact, most states in the Mid-Atlantic regularly experience abnormally dry conditions. Since 2005, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Maryland have all seen abnormal dryness for at least part of the year.49 The number of consecutive days without precipitation can show when drought may be forming or if an area may experience abnormal dryness into the future. Even short duration periods of dryness could exacerbate drought conditions. Severe and extreme drought conditions in the region can last as short as days or weeks and up to months, though very rarely years.

The following data tool, shown in Figure 5, presents an analysis of historical and projected consecutive dry days. The key findings from this tool are presented below.

Key Findings

  • The Mid-Atlantic region is projected to experience a similar number of consecutive dry days in the future under the low emissions scenario.
  • Under the high emissions scenario, a few areas will experience small increases in the number of consecutive dry days, particularly northern Maryland and southern Pennsylvania.
  • By the end of the century, the Mid-Atlantic region could see 22.9 days of less than 0.1 inches of precipitation in a row per year in a high emissions future, compared to an historical average of 21.6.

Figure 5. Longest Annual Stretch of Dry Days

How to Use the Tool

Selecting Temperature Thresholds, Time Periods and Future Emissions
Use the filters to the right of the maps to adjust the temperature threshold used to calculate the longest stretch of dry days and the 30-year time period. Users can also select the future emissions scenario (Low or High Emissions).

Viewing Data for a State or County
Use the State and County filters to the right of the table to have the plot show data for a particular location of interest.

Technical Notes

Localized Constructed Analogs (LOCA) is a downscaled climate data product available at 1/16-degree (6-km) resolution over the continental United States. LOCA data sets31 include the 32 climate models available in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 (CMIP5) archive, for two future greenhouse gas concentration trajectories: a low emissions future, Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5;32 and a high-emissions future, RCP 8.5.33 For this study, we used LOCA data over the Chesapeake Bay watershed from 1950–2100 (or 2099 for some models) for calculations of the baseline periods and the percent differences from those baselines. Access LOCA datasets and learn more about the methodology.

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The Mid-Atlantic Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments (MARISA) Seasonal Climate Impacts Summary and Outlook is a quarterly series produced by the MARISA program, a collaboration funded by NOAA through the RAND Corporation and researchers at Pennsylvania State University, Johns Hopkins University, Cornell University, the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Morgan State University, and Carnegie Mellon University. This series is specifically designed to support policymakers, practitioners, residents, and community leaders in the Mid-Atlantic by serving as a data and information resource that is tailored to the region. It draws information from regional climate centers, news and weather information, and regional-specific climate data sets. Projections of weather and climate variability and change in the Mid-Atlantic region come from the best available scientific information. For any questions or comments, please contact Krista Romita Grocholski at Krista_Romita_Grocholski@rand.org.

This edition of the MARISA Seasonal Climate Impacts Summary and Outlook was authored by Krista Romita Grocholski (RAND Corporation), Michelle E. Miro (RAND Corporation), Jessica Spaccio (Cornell University), Samantha Borisoff (Cornell University), and Arthur T. DeGaetano (Cornell University).

Citation: Romita Grocholski, Krista, Michelle E. Miro, Jessica Spaccio, Samantha Borisoff, and Arthur T. DeGaetano, Mid-Atlantic Regional Climate Impacts Summary and Outlook: Fall 2022. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2022.

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Footnotes

  1. https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil=PNSCTP&e=202209061727 Return to text ⤴

  2. http://climod2.nrcc.cornell.edu/ Return to text ⤴

  3. https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil=LSRLWX&e=202209071824 Return to text ⤴

  4. https://www.weather.gov/bgm/pastSevereSeptember192022 Return to text ⤴

  5. https://www.weather.gov/akq/Sep30_Oct3_2022_Ian_CoastalFlooding Return to text ⤴

  6. https://www.weather.gov/akq/Sep30_Oct3_2022_Ian_CoastalFlooding Return to text ⤴

  7. https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil=PNSAKQ&e=202210011315 Return to text ⤴

  8. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20221011/20221011_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  9. https://www.weather.gov/akq/Sep30_Oct3_2022_Ian_CoastalFlooding Return to text ⤴

  10. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/949773ee1def44da9e9486693f33cdd8 Return to text ⤴

  11. https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/03/us/virginia-beach-flooding/index.html Return to text ⤴

  12. https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil=PNSLWX&e=202211121530 Return to text ⤴

  13. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20221108/20221115_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  14. https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil=PNSAKQ&e=202211151924 Return to text ⤴

  15. https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil=PNSAKQ&e=202211151924 Return to text ⤴

  16. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20220906/20220906_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  17. https://www.wnep.com/article/news/local/carbon-county/beltzville-state-park-beach-closed-for-the-season-swimming-area-boat-launch/523-314f9d7d-4279-4d70-a58e-1253598d8031 Return to text ⤴

  18. https://www.fox43.com/article/news/local/york-county/summer-drought-inflation-higher-costs-fall-favorites/521-2a8de73b-05c8-42d8-a6c8-d96d979dba32 Return to text ⤴

  19. https://www.ahs.dep.pa.gov/NewsRoomPublic/articleviewer.aspx?id=22192&typeid=1 Return to text ⤴

  20. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20220927/20220927_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  21. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20220927/20220927_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  22. https://twitter.com/NWS_MountHolly/status/1577264380420374533/photo/2 Return to text ⤴

  23. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20221011/20221011_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  24. http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/services/blog/2022/11/03/index.html Return to text ⤴

  25. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20221101/20221101_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  26. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20221108/20221108_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  27. https://www.centredaily.com/news/local/article268585862.html Return to text ⤴

  28. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20221115/20221115_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  29. https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/data/png/20221101/20221101_usdm.png Return to text ⤴

  30. Climate normals, as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), are "three-decade averages of climatological variables including temperature and precipitation." The latest climate normal released by NOAA is the 1991–2020 average. See https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/land-based-station/us-climate-normals Return to text ⤴

  31. https://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/services/blog/2022/11/08/index.html Return to text ⤴

  32. https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2022/11/07/record-warmth-east-coast/ Return to text ⤴

  33. https://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/services/blog/2022/11/08/index.html Return to text ⤴

  34. https://climod2.nrcc.cornell.edu/ Return to text ⤴

  35. http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/services/blog/2022/11/08/index.html Return to text ⤴

  36. https://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/services/blog/2022/11/08/index.html Return to text ⤴

  37. https://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/services/blog/2022/11/08/index.html Return to text ⤴

  38. http://climod2.nrcc.cornell.edu/ Return to text ⤴

  39. https://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/services/blog/2022/11/08/index.html Return to text ⤴

  40. http://climod2.nrcc.cornell.edu/ Return to text ⤴

  41. https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/long_range/seasonal.php?lead=1 Return to text ⤴

  42. For more information on how NOAA defines at, above or below normal and determines percent chances, see: https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/long_range/seasonal_info.php Return to text ⤴

  43. https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/long_range/seasonal.php?lead=1 Return to text ⤴

  44. https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/expert_assessment/season_drought.png Return to text ⤴

  45. https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/ensodisc.shtml Return to text ⤴

  46. https://www.weather.gov/lwx/research_dcbalt_lanina Return to text ⤴

  47. https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/ensodisc.html Return to text ⤴

  48. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/daily/aug99/drought2.htm Return to text ⤴

  49. https://www.drought.gov/states/virginia Return to text ⤴

  50. http://loca.ucsd.edu/ Return to text ⤴

  51. More information on RCP 4.5 can be found in: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0151-4 Return to text ⤴

  52. More information on RCP 8.5 can be found in: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0149-y Return to text ⤴

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